THE IMPACT OF HUMAN–WILDLIFE CONFLICT ON HUMAN LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS By Sompa Bryson

Human population interacts with wildlife in numerous ways. Our species has directly explicated wild animals for food and two for millennia and more recently for sporting or cultural reasons. Humans have greatly modified habitants and landscapes through agriculture and other extractive industries with far-reaching and typically negative impacts on wildlife populations. Species have been translocated the around the globe, either deliberately or accidentally with major consequences for native fauna. From the human perspective, our interactions with wildlife are often positive- we gain material benefit from harvesting species for food or other animal products. In other situations, however, human interactions with wildlife are negative. Wild animals may eat our livestock and damage our crops, they may compete with us as hunters for wild prey populations, and they may even injure or kill us. Focusing on predators and crop raiders we assess the costs to stakeholders of living with wildlife. We focus on the direct costs to stakeholder of living with wildlife resources and crops and try to calculate these in financial terms. Wildlife may also impose indirect costs in terms of time and money spent in preventing wildlife damage and opportunity costs in terms of the income foregone from those activities that are precluded by the presence of wildlife. This latter area has received much less attention to date and draw attention to the need for inclusive studies.

Animal that range beyond reserve boundaries are still vulnerable to lethal control.  The crocodiles from Kafue national park (Crocodylus niloticus) are one of the few dangerous predators regularly found outside protected wildlife areas. This is particularly so in southern and western of Kafue national park where an extensive network of rivers and wetlands coupled with successful conservation measures has allowed crocodile populations to flourish since uncontrolled exploitation ended over three decades ago. This area is predominantly communal land characterized by numerous subsistence communities dependent on river and wetland resources. In recent years, the combination of a growing human population and resurgent crocodile populations has resulted in considerable conflict between humans and crocodiles. The principle objective of this study was to quantify the impact of crocodiles on rural livelihoods. Data were obtained from existing records and through community surveys on the southern and western of Kafue and upper Zambezi River. Existing estimates suggest that quiet a good number of domestic cattle are lost per year. Community surveys also revealed conflict between crocodiles and artisinal fishermen, with an estimated 71 500 fishing nets damaged by crocodiles per year. Human-crocodile conflict in southern may have greater impacts than previously assumed, more especially this season when the rains are available; this cases are common and may undermine conservation and development objectives. Conflict with people is the most serious threat faced by many vulnerable species and the ecosystem consequences of losing these species is only beginning to be recognized. The wide-ranging conversation impacts of human-wildlife conflict point to an urgent need for effective solutions to reduce killing of problem wildlife. Protected areas provide only a limited solution, because lethal controls can still effects occupying all but the very largest reserves. Moreover, while protected area networks are being expanded in some areas, many new reserves are multiple -use areas’ occupied by people as well as wildlife. In the majority of cases, therefore effective conservation will demand some means of peaceful coexistence of people and wildlife outside protected areas. If such means cannot be found. Further extinctions, with their association consequences for regional biodiversity, cannot be avoided.

Transmission of disease

Whilst beyond the main focus of this article, the transmission of disease from wildlife to humans or livestock can be a major cause of conflict. Wildlife carnivores can act as reservoirs of zoonotic diseases of humans with rabies as the classic example. Rabies is a viral disease which attacks the central nervous system. The symptoms may be paralysis followed by death, or alternatively animals may develop the range which results in biting other animals including humans, and transmitting the disease. Other human pathogens carnivores are the reservoirs include the tape worm echinococcus multilocularis which is transmitted by canids, and the protozoon toxoplasma gondii which is transmitted by telids. Wildlife is also implicated in the transmission of other generalist pathogens to livestock including the microparasites brucella abortus and mycobacterium bouis which cause the economically important diseases brucellosis. This diseases cause threats to human beings and their livestock.

Crop –raiding

Most rural residents grow their own supply of food to eat and to sell the surplus, and keep livestock as an investment. Thus, any damage to crops or livestock by wildlife has the potential to threaten key livelihood strategies for household food security and investments. Crop damage is a particular risk to less resourced households, who do not have access to livestock or any cash income. In part of the world crop- raiding by wild animals gives rise to significant conflict between local communities and wildlife conservation. Although certainly not a new phenomenon, crop–raiding has recently received consideration attention from conservation biologists. Particularly in relation to African elephant, conflicts between elephants and local communities are widespread in Africa and are a major concern for both elephant conservation and rural development. Human elephant conflicts occur throughout elephant range, both in the forests of west and central Africa and the savannas of east and southern Africa. The issue of human- elephant conflict has become increasingly significant as human populations expand into elephant habitat and as elephant populations locally recovers from poaching. Although elephants are not the most economically important crop pests in Africa, they can cause severe localized damage unlike primitive crop –raiders; elephant also kill several hundred rural Africans each year. As result elephants are widely perceived as a major threat in rural lives and livelihoods and inspire great animosity and fear among people who live in elephant range. The five most important wildlife crop-raiders are olive baboons, bush pigs, red tailed monkeys, chimpanzees and elephant. Hippos also caused significant damage to crops. Buffalo inflict relatively minor damage to crops (when compared with elephant damage), other wildlife responsible for crop damage are waterbuck, which caused comparatively little damage.

Deterrents of Human Wildlife Conflict

what action are to be taken trying to reduce the incidents of Human Wildlife Conflict, cracking whips, beating drums, burning fires, and, if they have access to guns, shooting in the air or report to the authority. The deterrents should be more effective against ‘problem animals’ other than elephants and that only just over half of farmers believed that such deterrents were effective. If reported conservancy staff (especially ZAWA) are active in trying to assist farmers in protecting their crops and livestock. However, these management measures have limited success in prevention and do not address the issue of compensation after damage.

Local community would appreciate compensation from the government either in the form of money or food.  Another suggestion is that of electric fencing around fields, and also giving people while permission to people to kill (animal cropping) the animals if carrying capacity is exceeded. Some rangers should be sent to fields during the time when the crops are ripening to frighten animals away. 

Transboundary implications of Human Wildlife Conflict

Human Wildlife Conflict has a strong transboundary component due to the migratory nature of animals causing Human Wildlife Conflict (especially elephants) and lack of international boundary fences. Botswana derives considerable benefit from wildlife through tourism. Elephants (particularly around the Chobe River) use Namibia as a nocturnal feeding ground and return to the safety of protected areas in Botswana during the day. In this context there could be potential for consideration of transboundary negotiations regarding management of Human Wildlife Conflict. Recent resources provided for transboundary conservation and development by international conservation organisations, such as African Wildlife Foundation and Conservation International, could provide a fertile environment for this negotiation.

 

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KNOW YOUR NATIONAL PARKS By Gilbert Mwale

The Lower Zambezi National Park

The Lower Zambezi National Park is situated on the North bank of the Zambezi River in south eastern Zambia. It covers an area of 4092km2. The park is relatively new, and as such, almost entirely unspoiled – it boasts stunning scenery and an abundance of game and birdlife. The park is rich in game with elephant, hippo, buffalo, zebra, lion, cheetah, leopard and various antelope species amongst many others.

Purpose of Lower Zambezi National Park

The Lower Zambezi National Park has four main objectives or purposes which are to conserve the vast area of natural ecosystems which contains diverse wildlife as well as to protect cultural resources and sites. It also provides opportunities for tourism, conservation education and scientific research. It contributes to the socio-economic well-being of the surrounding local communities and Zambian people at large.

The park possesses nationally significant natural or cultural resources making it appropriate for direct management as a National Park instead of alternative protection by other land administering agencies or the private sector.

ANIMALS OF THE LOWER ZAMBEZI NATIONAL PARK

Some of the animals found in the park include; 

Carnivores (Meat-eaters)

Lion

The lion (Panthera leo) is one of the four big cats in the genus Panthera, and a member of the family Felidae. It is the second-largest living cat after the tiger. Lions are found in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa. It prefers grasslands and open woodlands. They consume a wide variety of prey, from wildebeest, impala, zebra, buffalo and wild hogs to sometimes hippos. They will also feed on smaller animals such as hares, birds and reptiles. Lions are also known to attack elephants when food is scarce. An adult lioness requires an average of about 5 kg of meat per day, a male about 7 kg.

Crocodile

Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) are found most frequently in coastal lagoons, estuaries, and in the rivers bordering the equatorial forest belt. Adults are apex predators and prey upon various birds, reptiles and mammals. Among the mammals, diet consists of gazelles, antelope, waterbuck, sitatunga, lechwe, wildebeest, zebra, warthog, young hippos, giraffe, buffalos, young elephants, cheetah, and even big cats such as leopards and lions.

Leopard

Dense bush in rocky surroundings and riverine forest are their favourite habitats, but leopards (Panthera pardus) adapt too many places in both warm and cold climates. Their adaptability, in fact, has helped them survive the loss of habitat to increasing human settlement.

The leopard is one of the most secretive and elusive of the large carnivores. It is the strongest climber of the large cats and capable of killing prey larger than itself. They prey on small antelopes, rodents, baboons, monkeys and birds, being quick and efficient hunters. Leopards, like other cats, spend about two thirds of their lives sprawled out in relaxed slumber.

Honey Badger

The honey badger (Mellivora capensis) may be found in almost every type of habitat, including open plains and forested country (Williams, 1967). They are primarily carnivorous animals feeding on carrion, small rodents, scorpions, birds, lizards, tortoises and frogs. They have developed bodies that are somewhat resistant to snake toxins so they can easily hunt them. They honey badger is also known to prefer honey hence the name. They also eat fruits and vegetables such as berries, roots and bulbs.

Herbivores (Plant eaters)

Hippopotamus

Hippos (Hippopotamus amphibious) are plentiful in Zambia’s many waterways and often groups of over 60 can be seen in one spot. They are widespread and common in suitable inland waters and swamps. They inhabit lakes, swamps and rivers with sufficient water. They are vegetarian animals, feeding mainly at night and returning to lounge in the water before sunrise. They pluck grass with their wide lips but are also known to eat the fruit and flowers of the sausage tree. They consume up to 60kg of grass every night. Hippos will graze about 3 km from water, although some individuals move farther inland.  An individual may walk 10 km to seek food on land, spending an average of 5-6 hours on land per night.

Warthog

Warthogs (phacochoerus aethiopicus) inhabit open plains and grasslands, savannah country and semi-arid grass-bush. The warthog is mainly a grazer and has adapted an interesting practice of kneeling on its calloused, hairy, padded knees to eat short grass. Using its snout and tusks, it also digs for bulbs, tubers and roots during the dry season.

African Elephant

The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) inhabits forests, savannahs, river valleys, and marshes. They may be found either in dense forests, mopane and miombo woodlands. Elephants are herbivores; they eat grasses, bark, roots, leaves, and fruit. They consume from 200 to 300 kg of food, and up to 150 litres of water daily. Though they take in that much food their digestive system is not very efficient and only 40% of this food is properly digested.

Omnivores (meat and plant eaters)

Chacma Baboon

Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) live mostly in the woodland savannah and highland grasslands. They never wander far from trees, or a source of water. Unlike what you would expect, baboons do not live in trees. They spend most of their time on the ground. The only time they go into trees is to escape predators, get food, or spend the night. The Chacma baboon is omnivorous with a preference for fruits, while also eating insects, seeds, grass and smaller vertebrate animals. The Chacma baboon is generally a scavenger when it comes to game meat and rarely engages in hunting large animals.

Birds   

Laughing Dove

The Laughing Dove (Stigmatopelia senegalensis) is a small pigeon which is a resident breeding bird in the tropics in Africa south of the Sahara. They are usually found in the in the savannas. The Laughing Dove is mainly a ground-feeder. They are fairly terrestrial, foraging on the ground in grasslands and cultivation. Their diet consists chiefly of small seeds and grains. They occasionally feed on insects and especially favour termites. They rely heavily on water and therefore will stay close to areas that have an available water source.

Black and White Hawk Eagle

The black and white eagle’s (Spizaetus melanoleucus) natural habitat is lowland forests of any type. The species prefers a diverse habitat of mixed forest and shrubland. This animal is a carnivore preying on mammals, toads, squamates, and in particular a wide variety of birds. It prefers tree-living birds but ground and water birds are also preyed upon. 

Helmeted Guinea Fowl

The helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) inhabits any woodland or about any cultivation area. They are usually found near water and generally common except where it has been hunted out locally. They are omnivorous but mainly granivores. They are beneficial in that they feed mainly on noxious weeds and insects that are a threat to crops.

Trumpeter Hornbill

The Trumpeter Hornbill (Bycanistes bucinator) is mainly found in light and densely wooded forests, where there are Mopane trees. The bird is at home in riverine forests and close to water bodies such as lakes, dams and streams. The Trumpeter Hornbill is usually seen hunting for food within the tree foliage. This bird eats insects such as butterflies, bees, wasps, locusts and ants. These invertebrates are usually hawked aerially, killed and then eaten. The Bycanistes bucinator forages mainly on the ground or at the base of trees, and low down in the shrubs eating mostly fruits and seeds.

The animals listed above are just some of the variety of animals found in the Lower Zambezi National Park. The park has massive tourism potential that can be exploited with great advertisement.

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CONSERVATION OF KAFUE RIVER BIODIVERSITY By WINSTON MULEBA

Most vital surface water bodies in developing countries are under serious threat of degradation resulting from constant discharge of polluted effluents stemming from industrial, agricultural, mining and domestic/sewage activities and Kafue is not an exception. The most affected river systems are those traversing cities and towns in urban areas. The Kafue River in Zambia is one such river system that is threatened with serious degradation and probable loss of biodiversity. Kafue River cuts across the country in a North–South direction, stretches for about 1576 km before draining into the Zambezi River.

Biodiversity is a manifestation of the totality of the nation’s natural and cultural heritage that requires to be understood appreciated and used sustainably. Biodiversity plays an important function most often not recognized: the maintenance of ecological balance through processes such as the water and nutrient cycling, control of erosion and thus deterrence of land degradation, regulation of climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall through carbon sequestration, and in the production of crops through pollination.

Loss of biodiversity in respect to the variety of animals, plants, their habitats and their genes on which so much of human life depends, is one of the world’s most pressing crises. The main drivers of this loss are converting natural areas to farming and urban development, introducing invasive alien species, polluting or over-exploiting resources including water and soils and harvesting wild plants and animals at unsustainable levels. Kafue River is an important habitat for a large variety of animals and plants, this include Fish, amphibians, birds, insects, invertebrates, and reptiles live in this river, or find their food there. This river play a vital role in connecting habitats, and their value to plants and animals extends far beyond the surface area they cover. This habitat connectivity role functions both between upstream and downstream areas, and by connecting both sides of river banks. This necessitates an approach to management that looks at the river basin as a whole rather than just taking into account the river itself. Without a global environment that is healthy and capable of supporting a diversity of life, no human population can exist.

Fish biodiversity conservation is perhaps one of the most neglected areas of biodiversity conservation in the country, in wildlife biodiversity management, several subspecies conservation strategies have been developed directed at securing particular animal species and these include rhino, elephant, crocodile, wild dog and tortoise.

In recent years, the depletion of natural resources specifically fish has become a major focus of governments and organizations such as the United Nations (UN). This is evident in the UN's Agenda 21 Section Two, which outlines the necessary steps to be taken by countries to sustain their natural resources^. The depletion of natural resources is considered to be a sustainable development issue.In regards to natural resources, depletion is of concern for sustainable development as it has the ability to degrade current environments and potential to impact the needs of future generations when in the actual sense biological resources support the livelihoods of a vast majority of rural populations and for commercial exploitation at a national level. The benefits derived from natural resources contribute to the wealth of Zambia in a number of different ways – at the level of households, communities or provinces, from a variety of different sectors, including energy, tourism, food, livestock, pharmaceuticals and forestry. Ash for shifting cultivation is from burning forests and woodlands. Forests also provide timber, energy, household tools and construction material. Plants and animals are important sources of food. Medicines and other valuable chemicals products are obtained from both plants and animals.

The Kafue river basin is also core in poverty reduction in Zambia since it does not only provide a livelihood for communities living in the basin but also offer a life support to industrial, mining and agricultural sectors, the majors sectors that provide employment and sources of income as well as survival to most Zambia urban population. Projections indicate that about 80% of Zambians live in income poverty and suffer from other deprivation such as little access and poor quality of the social services.The Kafue River drains is one of the greatest stratiform metallogenic rivers, especially on the Copperbelt Province in Zambia (Unrug, 1988 as cited by Pettersson and Ingri, 2001) and further passes through major industrial, mining and agricultural provinces in the country carrying with it a variety of pollutant loads which include chemical pollutants that may cause poisoning of the aquatic life and might eventually lead to death, nutrients have been linked to the proliferation of aquatic weeds (i.e. Salviniamolesta) and may lead to eutrophication, blocking of navigation routes, increased BOD and COD concentrations, decrease in overall dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration, etc. Furthermore, ingestion of chemically polluted water could have fatal effects to both humans and animals.

The involvement of non-governmental stakeholders and the public in policy making and implementation has been recognized as an important feature in environmental governance. The United Nations Millennium Development Goals recognizes the participation of non-state actors in all levels of governance because they act as a resource pool of local knowledge in project implementation, strengthen institutions of accountability, encourage the efficient use of resources, among others. Participatory governance has been defined as "the active involvement of citizens in government decision-making”. The running and management of public affairs is not limited to the government and public administration, but involves cooperation between state institutions and civil society groups who participate in decision-making and implementation. Participatory governance is a key attribute of good governance, especially in states that have economies in transition, are newly democratic, or are engaging in governance reforms because it integrates all stakeholders irrespective of their status and capacity in society, and it is essential in implementing equitable sustainable development. As a prospective Aquaculturist/Fishery biologist, speaking from the research point of view, Kafue river is very polluted with different chemicals from different Manufacturing and Mining companies which contribute to the depletion of the indigenous fish species in the Kafue river seeing that the effluent discharged in the river contains different chemicals and materials therefore, in trying to conserve the Kafue river biodiversity I appeal to all the companies which discharges their effluent in the Kafue river especially  on the Copperbelt and Lusaka provinces to consider conserving the biodiversity of the river through restocking of the river with fries and above all to comply with the waste water regulation standard from Zambia Environmental Management Agency this also calls engagement of serious measures and policies from the government of restocking the river with fish by the perpetrators. I must commend some mines and other companies for having taken such an initiative and challenging task of doing the restocking after realizing the importance of the fish to human health in the community and above the importance of conserving the aquatic biodiversity. Indeed this is one of the corporate responsibilities that the private industries should participate in, If the private, non-governmental stakeholders and the public in policy making and implementation have been recognized as an important feature in environmental governance why then should some stakeholders fail to take the same step?

The National Biodiversity Strategy is about the sustainable use and management of biological resources, which can be achieved by the development and implementation of local management systems that promote sustainable use of biological resources and the design of incentive schemes which would apply to all aspects of biological resources and stakeholders, this strategy needs support from every Zambian.

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KNOW YOUR BIRDS (PART 2) By Siingwa Victor

DOVES

Doves are small birds of the pigeon family, with a cooing call. They are classified under the family Columbidae. Zambia has about nine species of doves, which are widely distributed throughout the country. A brief description of each species shall be given so as to help the Zambian citizenry and tourists are able to identify these birds and distinguish among the various species of doves.

For a more enjoyable bird watching a visit to any indigenous forest will be a major gain for birders. This will even be more memorable when one visits the National Park, game ranch, Bird and Wildlife Sanctuaries etc. In addition this will provide a peace of mind. Get ready to be entertained by nature’s wonderful entertainment .Make one of the weekends out of the theater and let nature be your theater watch realities of nature in Zambia the home of wildlife. 

For those at the Copperbelt province of Zambia or any one visiting the mining town of Kitwe CHEMBE BIRD SANCTUARY is a place for you, the name itself defines it all. Chembe Bird Sanctuary is located in kalulushi. “Situated 27km from Kitwe this protected area of woodland, grassland and wetland around a small dambo offers a great retreat within a secluded area. Also on offer are a campsite with basic facilities and a picnic/braai (BBQ) area with attendant. Boats can also be hired for either fishing or birding, and off the water you are welcome to take bird walks through a variety of habitats.”  Chembe Bird Sanctuary covers about 450 hectares, situated around a small lake, famous for its varied birdlife. It is about one hour out of Kitwe on the right side of the Kalulushi-Kasempa road and is well signposted. 

In this article I have only provided two pictures of these species of doves. The species will be game exercise when you visit any of the woodlands you can test your skill for bird identification.

Emerald-spotted Wood-Dove (Turtur chalcospilos)

Emerald-spotted Wood Dove is a small enviable pigeon. Its back, hind neck, wings and tail are pale grey brown, and the folded wings have green metallic patches. They have blackish bands on the lower back and tail. Its forehead, crown and nape are bluish grey, fading to pinkish grey on the throat. The under parts are mauve-pink, becoming whiter on the belly.

The bill (beak) of this dove is blackish with a red base. The sexes are similar, but the female may be slightly duller than the male. The immature has duller green spots and buff fringes to the feathers. 

Namaqua Dove (Oena capensis)

Namaqua Dove is a tiny sparrow-sized pigeon. This Dove is quite terrestrial, and usually forages on open ground and roadsides. It has a very long black tapered tail, and the size and shape have led to comparison with the Budgerigar. The plumage is mostly grey apart from a white belly, and chestnut primary feathers which are visible in flight. The adult male has a black face, throat and breast, and a yellow and red beak. The adult female lacks the black and has a red-based grey bill. Young birds are dark blotched on the wings and shoulders, and otherwise resemble the females. 

Dusky Turtle-Dove (Streptopelia lugens)

This dove has its head entirely dark ash grey. Display feathers on side of neck and hind neck are black, grading to dark ashy brown on the upper mantle having narrow pale grey edging. The upper breast is dark grey shading to ashy pink on lower breast. The belly and the under tail of the Dusky turtle- Dove coverts grey it’s under wing coloration is grey. The birds Iris coloration is orange brown or red brown. The bird’s inner wig coverts dark ashy brown having broad chestnut edgings. Flight feathers blackish grey having narrow pale grey edges. The lower back and rump is greyish brown with the upper tail coverts and central tail feathers dark brown. Eye Cere or Orbital skin is reddish purple, bill blackish. The legs and feet are purplish red. 

Laughing Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis)

 This is a small distinctively plumaged dove of the open country. Laughing doves a black neck collar, it is smaller than the European turtle dove. In flight cinnamon – coloured back contrasts with blue-grey forewings. They have out tail tips coloured white. They are widely found, including urban areas but avoid forests, found near water only in very arid areas. This bird is abundant. 

Mourning Collared-Dove (Streptopelia decipiens)

This is a plain grey head and broad red eye- ring are diagnostic, this dove large than all other collard doves. When in flight this bird has white in outer-tails. They are mostly found in woodland, riverine forests, thickets and gardens in semi-arid savanna.

Red-eyed Dove (Streptopelia semitorquata)

The red-eyed dove is large and darker than other collared doves, with a pale face and pinkish head and breast. In flight, has diagnostic broad buffy band at tip of tail, it has a complete black neck color. It has dull red eye-ring which is less prominent than in the Mourning dove bird. This species are commonly found in woodlands, forest and gardens and it is commonly found. 

Check out for these birds in the nearby bird sanctuaries, woodlands, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries use the description given to help you identify the other dove above. 

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